Abenaki of Vermont

Native American arts daily news, presented by
amerindianarts.us

RSU/Claremore Graduation Honor Powwow set for May 13

National Endowment For The Arts Awards Over $800,000 To Oregon

Senate bill prompts rush of off-reservation casino applications

They're finally going to get their accounting

Ancient remains finally are reburied

Abenaki of Vermont

Newcomb: Water is life: Sacred and precious

Composers take Indian students under their wings

Abenaki celebrate recognition

Storytelling fest spans Mississippi

Canoes still popular

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July 21-22, 2007

American Indian Intertribal Cultural Festival, July 21-22, 2007, Hampton, Va. -- Festival highlighting the contributions and cultures of Virginia Indians, with native foods, dances, traditional stories, arts and crafts and music

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Now through May 20

Natrona County School District No. 1 schools will be hosting performances by Red Feather Woman, a Native American storyteller, singer, songwriter and author. There will also be a special public show at the Nicolaysen Art Museum, 400 E. Collins Dr., May 20, at 1 p.m., and then she will be at The Indians in Market Square, 232 East Second St., No. 104 at 3 p.m. for a CD signing. Info: 237-4228 or 261-6837 or visit www.thenic.org or{M3 www.redfeatherwoman.com

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OCT. 5-6

Virginia Indian Symposium -- Williamsburg Hosted by Virginia's Indian tribes, the "400 Years of Survival" symposium will feature nationally known Native American speakers on topics such as sovereignty, federal recognition, health care, repatriation and education.

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Museum of Indian Arts and Culture: "Elements of Earth and Fire: New Directions in Native American Ceramic Art: Color," second of three four-month installations, each focusing on one element of pottery-making. "Color" runs through June 18; series continues through Oct. 8. "Wondrous Works: Contemporary Art by Native American Women, through Jan. 14, 2007. 708 Camino Lejo, Santa Fe. Admission and hours: (505) 476-1250.

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MOTHER'S DAY BRUNCH, 11 a.m. to 1:30 p.m., Gathering, Mashantucket Pequot Museum, 110 Pequot Trail, MASHANTUCKET. Brunch includes spring asparagus, carved hickory roast buffalo brisket, desserts and more. Emma Joe Mills Brennan and her jazz trio will perform. Presentation by Native American quilters Salli Benedict, Sheree Bonaparte and Barbara Helen Hill. $30. Moms get half-price admission to museum exhibits. Reservations: 1-800-411-9671 by May 10. www.pequotmuseum.org

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Taos Art Museum: "The Stark Legacy," paintings by members of the Taos Society of Artists. Through July 23. 227 Paseo del Pueblo Norte, Taos. Admission and hours: (505) 758-2690.

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Park volunteers needed
Edge of the Cedars State Park Museum staff needs volunteers to assist with the Four Corners Indian Art Market May 6 and 7 from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Volunteers will work four-hour shifts.
The art market is a celebration of the contemporary and traditional Native American arts and culture. Activities include Hopi and Navajo dancers and performances by singer James Bilagody and flute player Aldean Ketchum. Food, pottery, arts, crafts and jewelry are available for purchase. For more information, please call 435-678-2238.

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A ga-n Becomes Raven Old Man's Son-in-law - Apache / White Mountain

One time, long ago in a certain country Raven People were living. Among them was Old Raven who had four daughters. Only the youngest daughter was good looking. She smiled nicely. Some time ago I told you a story about how the ga-n people disappeared under the water ("The Maiden from whom They Disappeared into the Water"). Now after that, at the time of this story the ga-n people were living in the mountains. With the ga-n was living a good boy. This boy came out from the ga-n home on to this earth and started traveling around. While he was traveling, he came to where the Raven people were living and met the youngest daughter of Old Raven. This boy killed rabbits and gave them to the girl. Also he gave her deer that he had killed, for a present. The boy was thinking that only in this way would he get married.

About sunrise one day he stopped in front of the door of Old Raven's wickiup and dropped a bunch of wild rats he had caught. Old Raven was in the wickiup and he told his daughter to look outside. "I heard something drop. It must be tsigizis (a small buckskin pouch worn on belt at side) has been dropped there." The girl went outside and looked and then came back and told her father that there were a lot of pack rats lying there. "That's what you heard drop." she said. So Old Raven told her to bring them in and they would eat them. They cooked and ate the rats.

The next day at the same time they heard something drop in front of the wickiup again. Now Old Raven said, "Look, I hear something drop, I think it is tsigizis." The girl went out and looked and saw a bunch of cottontail rabbits lying there. She went back and told her father about it. Then Old Raven said, "Go get them and bring them here. We will cook and eat them."

The next day at the same time, they heard something drop again in front of the wickiup. Old Raven told the girl to go look. "It must be tsigizis," he said. So the girl went out and found lots of jack rabbits lying there. She came back and told her father about it. Then Old Raven said, "Go bring them in and we will eat them."

Next day at the same time they heard something drop outside the wickiup again. "That's my tsigizis dropped down now, surely. Go see what it is my daughter," Old Raven said. The girl went out and looked and saw a baby deer lying there. She told her father about it. He said to go get it and bring it in and they would cook and eat it.

The next day at the same time, Old Raven heard something drop again m front of the wickiup. "That's my tsigizis dropped down Go and see about it "he said. So his daughter went out and found a female black-tailed deer lying there. She told her father. "Bring it in here and we will eat it," Old Raven said.

Next day at the same time they heard something drop again Old Raven said; "That must be my tsigizis, go see about it." So the girl went out and found buck black-tailed deer lying there. She told her father and he said to bring it in and they would cook and eat it, put it m a pot and boil it and make a stew.

Then Old Raven started to think. "Why does this happen every morning? Why is it?" he said to his wife. "I think this is about my daughter here and soon I will find out. [Young men in courting frequently hunted small game, which they brought as gifts to their sweethearts.] Why don't you build a wickiup for this girl, away from camp here and make a doorway to the east. That would be best." So his wife set to work and they made a new wickiup way off, with the doorway to the east. When it was all built, at night the girl went to lie down inside it and sleep She lay there that night. About midnight she heard the rattling sound from the dangles on ga-n clothing. She could hear them dancing toward her. In the morning she went back to her father's camp and told him, "When I stayed in that wickiup last night I heard the ga-n hooting as if they were talking together and also the jingle of their clothes. Only once I heard it." Old Raven said, "Do some cooking and when you finish it, take it to that wickiup and leave it there. Then come back here." So the girl cooked some corn gruel and earned it in a basket and left it there in the wickiup then she came away. Later on that day she went back there She saw that whoever it was who had come there had stuck only one finger in the food and had not eaten any. She came back and told her father about this.

That night she went to the wickiup again and slept there. Late that night she heard a sound again of ga-n and the rattle of their clothes coming close. But she only heard it one time. In the morning she went back to her father and told him about it. He told her to cook some more food and leave it in the wickiup again and then comeback. So the girl did this. After a while Old Raven told her to go and look at the food The girl went over and found where the person had stuck two of his fingers into the t'a'dil (gruel), but had eaten none. So she took the food back and told her father, "There are two finger marks in the gruel but I never saw anyone there."

That night Old Raven told the girl to go back and lie down in the new wickiup again. She did this and late that night she heard the ga-n hooting and the rattle of their clothing. She could hear them dancing in front of the wickiup. But that one never came inside to her and she saw no one. In the morning the girl went back to her father's camp and told them about it. "I heard the hooting and jingling of the ga-n close by, but I never saw anyone." Old Raven told her to cook some food and take it back to the wickiup and leave it there. "Then come back here," he said. The girl did this. After a while she went back to see the food. The one who had been there had eaten just a little bit of it. She brought the basket back and showed it to her father. "He ate some of it," she said. Now Old Raven talked with his wife. "He has eaten some now. I don't know who he is, though."

That night before the girl went to the wickiup, her parents told her, "Go to the wickiup and lie there perfectly still. Don't move at all. Whoever it is who has been around here is coming to you this night. Don't get scared and try to get away from him." So the girl went over to the wickiup and lay there as she had been told. Very late that night she heard the ga-n coming. It sounded as if lots of them were coming. She could hear their hooting and the rattle of their clothes and also the bull roarer that Clown was swinging, as if they were all having a good time. When they got to the door of the wickiup they stopped and there was a lot of noise from outside. After a while a ga-n came in and sat down close by the girl's pillow. She was badly scared and wanted to run, but she remembered what her father had told her and lay there perfectly still. When this one came in, he had no ga-n clothes on. [Actual ga-n are sometimes said to appear just as ga-n dancers do in ceremonies, with decorated kilt, moccasins, mask and headdress, painted bodies and wooden wands.] He was like an ordinary man. While he sat there he talked with the girl and she talked with him. They got along well and held hands. He stayed all that night and in the morning they made him lots of food to eat and took it to him at the new camp. He ate it all.

Now this man lived there at the new wickiup. He used to go out hunting. First he killed a baby deer and brought it to Old Raven's camp. The meat was cooked there, and some of it was taken to the man at the new camp. There the girl ate with him. After that he killed a female black tail and took it to Old Raven's camp. When they cooked this they gave some back to the man to eat. Then he killed a male black tail and took it to his father-in-law's camp. They cooked and ate it and he ate some also.

This man had lived with the girl for quite a while and they were married to each other. One night the girl spoke to him and said, "Where do you live? We had better go back there where you came from." "I live where it is dangerous. Don't ask to go there," he answered her. So they lived on a while longer with her people. Then again she asked him, "Where do you come from? Let's go there." "No, I told you about where I live, that it is dangerous. Don't talk about going there," he said. The two lived on a long time and then the wife said again to her husband, "Where do you live? Let's go to your people." "No, I told you, no. I live far off and in a dangerous place. You can't go there," he said. For quite a while longer they stayed on. Then one night his wife said again, "Let's go to your home. Even if it is dangerous there, let's go all the same." So the man thought about it, whether she would be able to get there or not. The girl said, "I mean just what I say. I want to go back to your home. I think you have lots of relatives. That's why I want to go there and see some of them." "All right, I told you we ought not to go, but we will go anyway tomorrow," he said. About sunrise they started off to the east. After they had gone a way they went up on top of a butte, then over it and down and when they got to the foot of the slope they came to a sulphur wheat shrub. The man told his wife to pull this up. When she did so the bush came out and there was a hole down below. It was blue like the sky inside there. They looked down in and could see the branches and needles of a spruce swaying back and forth below them. It was as if they were looking down into another world. That man told his wife, "I don't want you to hesitate when you go in this hole." They started into the hole. Black Wind blew her back. Then the woman tried to go in the hole again, and Blue Wind blew her back. She tried to go in a third time, but Yellow Wind blew her back. Then there was only one chance left and her husband said, "If you hesitate this time again, you will have to stay on this earth always and cannot go to my home." They went to the hole, and this time both jumped into it and went down and lit on Black Spruce. Then on the other side they went to the top of Blue Spruce. Then they went to the top of Yellow Spruce, and then on to the north to the top of White Spruce. From here they went down onto the ground. On the ground were growing all kinds of grasses. This was a good country and they started along through it. Soon they came to a river with cottonwoods and sycamores growing along its banks. Further on they found tracks of peoples on the ground. They followed these and came to a trail, which they took. After a way, at the side of the trail, they found where some corn leaves had fallen from a load. They kept on and in a while came to where a lot of corn was planted. Beyond the corn were growing squash. Yet further on they saw all kinds of plants that grow on this earth and all kinds of fruits. They went by these.

This man and his wife were going to his people. His people already knew that he was coming. "This day he will come back home," they said. Just before they got to where his people were living, the man said to his wife, "I told you I lived where it was dangerous. Don't get scared and try to run off, though. We are getting close now." They kept on, but before they got to the camp Black Bear ran out at them. The man told his wife, "Go behind me and hide there." She did and Black Bear ran out around them. After a while he sat down at one side and looked at them. So they started on, but soon Blue Bear ran out at them. The woman hid behind her husband while Blue Bear ran all around them. Then he sat down, off to one side and they went on. These Bears did not really want to catch the woman; they just wanted to scare her, but she thought they were trying to catch her. They started on again. Then Yellow Bear ran out at them. The woman hid behind her husband and Yellow Bear ran all around them. Then he went to one side and sat down. They started on. After a way White Bear ran at them. The Woman hid behind her husband and White Bear ran all around them. Then he went to one side and sat down. They went on. That man had lots of sisters and brothers, and these bears were their pets. They also belonged to his father and mother. They went on to the camp. When they got there, his sisters, brothers and father and mother stepped outside the camp. That man left his wife standing there and went among his people to see them.

Then he was home again with his wife, living among his people once more. There were lots of plants that had fruit and seeds good to eat at this place. So the man told his relatives to gather some for him and his wife to use. While they were living there Clown came to his camp. He wanted to see this woman's face, to see if his sister-in-law was good looking. If she was, he said he was going to hunt deer for her. [To hunt deer for a new sister-in-law, that the meat might be taken to her family, was quite regular.] When he saw the woman's face, he said, "My sister-in-law is good-looking all right. I'm going to hunt deer now," and he started off. But when Clown came back, he brought only the sinew from the deer's back to that man's camp. This meant that it would turn to lots of meat when it was taken back to his father-in-law, Old Raven. Next Black ga-n came there. He said that he wanted to see his sister-in-law's face. "If she looks good I'm going to hunt for her," he said. After he saw her he said, "My sister-in-law looks good, so I'm going to hunt now," and he started off. When he came back he brought only the sinew from the deer's back to that man's camp. Red ga-n came and did the same way. Then Talking ga-n came there and said, "I want to see my sister-in-law. If she looks good I'm going to hunt for her." When he saw her he said, "She looks good, so I'm going to hunt now," and he started off. But when he came back he just brought sinew.

After that, these people wanted a horse in and told the woman to go out in the pasture and bring in a horse, so they could go to the fields to get some corn. The woman took a rope and started off to catch a horse. When she got to the horses, she saw that they were really bears. She was afraid and ran back to camp. When she did this, her husband's people laughed at her. "Those bears you saw are our horses. They are gentle and not mean at all. We use them for horses all the time. Why did you get scared," they said. Then the woman's mother-in-law went out and got one of these horses herself and brought it in. Then she put a saddle on it and a bridle and told the woman, "Let's go to the cornfield." But the woman would not go; she said she was scared of the horse. "Anyway, come on, you can walk apart from this horse," the mother-in-law said.

So they started out and went to the cornfield. There they packed a load of corn on the bear and brought it back to camp. But when they got back, the woman was still afraid of that horse. These people gathered lots of squash, beans and other foods and brought them in for that woman. She lived there quite a while, till everything was ripe. All the corn was ripe, but she was still there. Then that woman's father-in-law talked to his people and said, "This woman and my boy have come back from over there and have lived with us for quite a while. Since they have been here we have given nothing to the woman. We had better give her some deer meat and all these foods we have gathered, so that when she goes back they can take them to where Raven Chief is living." This is the way they told that man also, "You came back from that woman's home a while ago. When you go back to your father-in-law, you are going to take all this corn and other food to him. When you get there tell him to eat it. Then these corn seeds, show him how to plant them and raise corn, so he can do it like we do." Then those people gathered a little of each kind of seed and tied them up in a bundle. Then they brought in a horse and packed the load on it.

When all was packed the man and his wife started off. This all meant that when they got back to Old Raven's country, all these seeds would become many. All was ready and that man told his wife to ride on the horse, but she said, "No, I'm still scared of it." She did not want to get on, so her sister-in-law got on and showed her how to do it, "Look at me here! This horse is gentle and not mean." Then they tried to put the woman on, but she said no, she was afraid. "Well, lead it then!" they said. "All right," she said and started to lead the horse off. The mother of the man told her children to go a little way with the woman. "Maybe if you tell her to ride later on she will do it and not be scared," she said. So they all started off and after a while came to the foot of the trail up out of this country. Now the woman got on the horse. This trail was steep and went in switchbacks to the top. It made four turns on the way up. When they left the man's people at the foot of the trail, these relatives told her, "Don't look back towards where your mother-in-law and father-in-law live. Just keep on to the top." So they started on up the trail. When the two were almost to the top, the woman looked back just as she was about to step into her own world. She thought she would like to look back once more to where she had been. When she turned back, right then the horse fell down and rolled to the bottom of the trail. The pack fell off and was scattered all over the trail. Then they got it into a big pile. That man said to his wife, "Before you started up the trail they told you not to look back to where they were living. Now see what you have done!"

Where Old Raven was living, there were a great many people living also. When that man and his wife got to where they were living, these Raven People helped to carry all the things that they had brought back. They went every day and kept on carrying it back, but still there was more. All the Raven People helped and after a few days they had it all brought to Old Raven's camp Now they, used this to eat. Then later they were ready to plant corn and other seeds. Old Raven was thinking about the corn. He always liked it parched in a basket, so he said, "That corn you parched, I am going to plant that way, and when it gets ripe I will be able to eat it without having to cook it." So he went ahead and planted it. All the other people planted their corn in the right way plain, and it grew up well. But where Old Raven planted his nothing came up at all. Later on, when every bit of the corn was ripe, all the people who were living there started in to harvest it. But there was still a lot ungathered. Then that man who married Old Raven's daughter thought to himself, "These people are doing a lot of work. I would like to go and get my relatives to help them on this corn and finish it. So he went off and later came back with all his sisters and brothers to that place. This way the girls and boys who liked each other worked together in the fields. Some of the corn that they raised at that time was short and had little ears on it. These little ears of corn the boys and girls tied on each side so they hung over their ears. This way they were flirting in the fields. [Courting while working in the fields was common, as young people might work side by side.]

Old Raven did not like it because so many people were working in the fields, all his son-in-law's relatives as well. He thought with so many people working, it would take all the corn to pay them and only a little would be left for him. [Rich men with large farms hired labor to work their fields, especially at harvest. Workers were paid in produce] The sisters and brothers of Old Raven's son-in-law knew what Old Raven was thinking, even though he had not told them. They knew everything this way. Then they said, "Old Raven is thinking something bad about us. He thinks that we will take all this corn back with us, but we just want to help him, that's all. If he thinks this way, we had better all go home While they were working in the fields the Raven People saw them there, but the next thing they had all disappeared and they could not see them anywhere. At the same time all the corn and other crops were gone out of the field. They took them away. This is the way they took all the crops back with them and made it hard for the people to make a living.

Told by Bane Tithla

Taken from Myths and Tales of the White Mountain Apache by Grenville Goodwin, 1934 and is now in the public domain

From the Archives of Blue Panther Keeper of Stories
http://groups.msn.com/KeeperofStories/
Reprinted by permission

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Books and Articles

Dorothy Dunn On Primitive Art
Excerpt
Anthropologists use the term "primitive" as a general category to describe cultures which had not achieved a certain standard (define modernity). For Dunn, a primitive was not a certain type of culture, but described individuals and objects indigenous to any, every, culture. The primitive subject was that gifted individual, or "seer" whom was able to discern the primitive objects relevant to their culture. These objects were also primitives, and represented the signs, icons, or symbols of a culture. Thus, for Dunn, primitive art was the one to one relationship between the seer and the perceived set of primitive objects of their culture. Primitive was not a certain type of culture, but a certain set of variables occurring in every culture, and primitive art was an event that portrayed the values, or what was of importance in that culture. Thus, Dunn encouraged her students to carry on the tradition into the Modernist era.

Essay on the Zuni World View
Excerpt(Complete article is available in PDF)
In Signs from the Ancestors, a study of Zuni cultural symbolism and perceptions in rock art, M. Jane Young cites the "dialectics of the beautiful and the dangerous" noted by Barbara Tedlock and states that "Tedlock posits an underlying aesthetic framework that informs cosmology, whereas I posit an underlying cosmological principle that informs aesthetics". From the perspective of this paper and its conclusions it would appear that Young is perhaps partially correct in her ascertainment although the confluence of the two principles makes it difficult to discern logical priority in either the beautiful (tso’ya) or the dangerous (attanni), for the multireferential finds manifestation of beauty in the "aesthetic of accumulation, an elaborate redundancy of symbolism in Zuni sacred and secular environments" and informs cosmological principles of the preconditions of the rational, while aesthetic license premises pragmatics where proper interpretation of context ensures that rational thought of the "perspective-taker" attains objectivity as a "personal accomplishment" in the success of "reciprocal public intentions". This is because the principle of the “base metaphor” cited by Young is inclusive of a body of conceptual presuppositions which include the notion of an interrelatedness of all things, which is seen here as a cosmological precept akin to notions of identity and individuation, and the notion of a predetermined harmony as indicative of the aesthetic. Young notes that the “very generality of the metaphor lends its ambiguity--an ambiguity quite characteristic of the Zuni view of the world. Zuni ritual symbols, whether expressed verbally or visually, are frequently multivalent or multireferential, standing for both themselves and something else at the same time; yet all of the meanings are bound together, so that the Zunis say, as do the Mescalero Apache: "They’re all the same thing".

Bibliography of the Zuni Language
Excerpt
The Zuni, or Shiwi language, is now generally considered a language isolate. The Encyclopedia Britannica categorizes it as a Penutian language, and Bertha Dutton once posed the hypothetical that according to the Swadesh list, "If the Zuni language is a member of the Penutian language family, then it is a distant relative of the Tanoan languages (Tewi)." The Penutian hypothesis was advanced by Alfred Kroeber and Roland B. Dixon, and later refined by Edward Sapir, and was an attempt to reduce the number of unrelated language families in a culturally diverse area that was centered in California's central coast. While this theory was plausible for some of the languages, the problem of verification of this theory was that to find any evidence of any cognates between the California languages and Zuni, one would possibly have to trace the languages' lineage by as much as 3000-5000 years or more.

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Indian Ledger Art-Resources and Information
Excerpt
Ledger art is traditionally a male American Indian pictographic art form, and historically has been characterized as such by researchers. Chronologically its stylistic development belongs to the Proto-Modern era of the Native American Fine Arts Movement and was a major influence, through trade routes and the patronage of white art collectors, on Modern Indian Art as its elements diffused to the schools of New Mexico, Oklahoma, and the Northwest Coast. Its more explicit expression, however, yielded to the styles that developed in these schools and culminated in the early 1960's during a period of the Movement referred to as the First Generation Modernists. Only recently have the researchers of Ledger art recognized Virginia Stroud as the Native American Woman artist who, as a Second Generation Modernist and a member of the so-called "New Indian Art Movement", revitalized a traditionally male form of art expression with her pictographic images in the late 1960's to the early 1980's. Influence on Stroud's stylistic achievements can be attributed to her Kiowa upbringing centered in Oklahoma, which is the major geographic center of the Southern Plains school, and her attendance at Bacone under the direction and influence of Dr. Richard West.

AEQ Book Review of Making Dictionaries: Preserving Indigenous Languages of the Americas .
Frawley, William, Kenneth C. Hill, and Pamela Munro, eds. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. 450 pp. ISBN 0520229967, $34.95.
© 2004 American Anthropological Association Book Review of Making Dictionaries: Preserving Indigenous Languages of the Americas .
Reviewed for the Anthropology & Education Quarterly by Catherine S. Fowler
University of Nevada
csfowler@unr.nevada.edu
To Order this book

THE FOURTH WORLD
W. Tussinger has written his first novel which was released in December, 2004.
W. Tussinger is a member of the Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma and has lived on several reservations including the Yuroks of Northern California and the Yakamas of Washington State where he attended college.
To Order this book

An Overview of Pacific Northwest Native Indian Art
Free downloadable e-book

American Indian Women's Activism in the 1960s and 1970s
by Donna Hightower Langston
Complete article

THE WOMEN/Edward S. Curtis
"THE WOMEN/Edward S. Curtis," by Christopher Cardozo; foreword by Louise Erdrich (Bulfinch Press, $35) — Cardozo, who lives in Minneapolis, is the world's foremost expert on, and collector of, photos of American Indians taken by turn-of-the-century photographer Edward S. Curtis. Cardozo went through 1,000 photos to find the 100 sepia-toned images in this book, which show the daily lives of American Indian women at a time when most were already on reservations. Minneapolis novelist and poet Erdrich discusses women's work in her foreword: " … although Edward Curtis believed that he was documenting a vanishing culture, it is in these humble arts that the strength of Native culture lives on."

Linguists Find the Words, and Pocahontas Speaks Again
By JOHN NOBLE WILFORD

Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand, The Book
Early tribal artifacts put in spotlight at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History

"Communing with Bears"
By Sara Wright
Communing with Bears is the story of a joyful encounter between one woman and a black bear.

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Web Sites:
Native American Links Page
Indigenous Peoples Literature
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Wisdom of the Old People
By David Whitney

National Association of Tribal Historic Preservation
Inuit film to tell story of last great shaman
My Two Beads Worth: Indigenous News Online
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Literacy in Indigenous Communities by L. David van Broekhuizen, Ph.D. (2000)
HTML Format (70K)
PDF Format(117K)
Literacy in first languages in indigenous communities is a complex topic that generates lively discussion. This research synthesis explores the notions of national, mother-tongue, multiple, and biliteracies. It presents important information pertaining to threatened languages, language shift, and language loss. Examples of culturally relevant uses of literacy in indigenous communities and issues related to first-language literacy instruction are also provided.